Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Philosophy was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics. Greek philosophy continued throughout the Hellenistic period and later evolved into Roman philosophy.
Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception, and can be found in many aspects of public education. Alfred North Whitehead once claimed: “The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato”. Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, early Islamic philosophy, medieval scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
Greek philosophy was influenced to some extent by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East, though the extent of this influence is widely debated. The classicist Martin Litchfield West states, “contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers’ imagination; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas. But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation”.
Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of “Classical Greek” and “Hellenistic philosophy”, respectively.
In Greek philosophy, “essence” (ousia or eidos) refers to the true, fundamental nature of a thing that remains constant despite changes in its appearance (morphē), which is its outward, perceived form or manifestation. Pre-Socratic philosophers questioned what remained constant in a changing world, leading to theories like Thales’ water or Pythagoras’s numbers as substances. Plato expanded this with his Theory of Forms, positing non-physical, ideal essences (Forms) that are the true reality behind perceived appearances. Aristotle further developed this, defining essence as the substance or unchanging nature of a thing, the “what it is” that makes it that specific entity.
Pre-Socratic Thinkers
- The Problem of Change: Pre-Socratic philosophers observed that appearances are always changing and sought to identify the stable “substance” or essence that underpins these changes.
- Thales: Proposed that water was the fundamental substance of all things.
- Pythagoras: Suggested that numbers, rather than physical elements, constituted the non-physical essences of the physical world.
Plato
Forms: Plato’s Theory of Forms introduces a world of perfect, eternal, and unchanging abstract essences (Forms) that are the true reality.The Physical World: The physical objects we perceive are merely imperfect copies or appearances of these ideal Forms. Aristotle
Substance and Accidents: Aristotle distinguished between a thing’s substance (its essential nature, or “what it is”) and its accidents (qualities or attributes that are not essential to its identity).Form and Matter: For Aristotle, the essence of a thing also included its form and function. The form explains why the material components of an object are organized and structured in a particular way, making it the specific type of thing that it is.
Key Terms
- Essence (Ousia/Eidos): The fundamental, unchanging nature or being of a thing.
- Appearance (Morphē): The outward manifestation, perceived form, or transient aspects of a thing.
- Substance: The underlying reality or subject of a thing that possesses its essence.
AI responses may include mistakes.
[1] https://www.wisdomlib.org/christianity/concept/essence-and-appearance
[2] wikipedia/en/Theory_of_forms
[3] https://www.postost.net/2025/04/can-morphe-theou-signify-nature-being-or-essence-god
[4] https://academic.oup.com/book/27027/chapter/196301460
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In Greek ethical thought, the concept of a triad appears in several different forms, most prominently in the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and later Neoplatonists. These triads are not fixed, but rather different models for understanding reality, human psychology, and how to achieve a moral life.
The Platonic triad of virtues
In his work Republic, Plato develops an ethical framework around a “tripartite soul,” which consists of three parts. Each part has a corresponding virtue that must be harmonized under the guidance of reason to achieve a just and balanced life.
- The Rational Part (Logistikon): This is the reasoning and thinking element of the soul, which seeks truth and wisdom. Its virtue is wisdom (sophia).
- The Spirited Part (Thymoeides): This element comprises a person’s emotions, such as honor, ambition, and anger. Its virtue is courage (andreia), which gives the rational part the strength to fight for what is right.
- The Appetitive Part (Epithymetikon): This part is driven by bodily desires and appetites for things like food, drink, and sex. Its virtue is temperance (sophrosyne), a state of moderation and self-control that keeps these desires in check.
When these three parts function in harmony, they produce the overarching virtue of justice (dikaiosyne), which for Plato represents the health of the soul.
The Neoplatonic metaphysical triad
Building on Platonic ideas, later Neoplatonist thinkers like Plotinus and Proclus developed a metaphysical triad to explain the structure of reality. While not directly ethical, this framework profoundly influenced later ethical thinking by establishing a hierarchy of being.
- The One: The ultimate, ineffable, and transcendent source of all reality.
- The Intellect (or Mind): This is the first emanation from the One, containing the Platonic Forms. It is the realm of pure thought and being.
- The Soul (or World Soul): Emanating from the Intellect, the Soul is the active, creative principle that bridges the intelligible and sensible worlds.
In this system, human ethical development involves a journey of the soul back towards the higher realities of the Intellect and the One. Plotinus himself considered his triad of “the One, the Intellect, and the Soul” as the structure of the universe.
The Aristotelian rhetorical triad
Aristotle, focusing on practical and persuasive communication, developed a different kind of triad based on the components of rhetoric. This framework is not an ethical system in itself, but a tool for ethical communication, emphasizing how a speaker can appear virtuous to an audience.
- Ethos: The appeal to the speaker’s credibility, character, and integrity. A virtuous speaker (demonstrating good will, good character, and expertise) is seen as more persuasive.
- Pathos: The appeal to the emotions of the audience. A speaker using pathos attempts to evoke sympathy, anger, or other emotions to make their argument more compelling.
- Logos: The appeal to logic and reason. A speaker using logos provides evidence and reasoned arguments to support their claims.
The Socratic triad in Xenophon
The historian Xenophon describes a Socratic triad of virtues emphasizing practical self-discipline, based on Socrates’s personal example.
- Self-control (Enkrateia): Mastery over one’s own lusts and appetites.
- Endurance (Karteria): The fortitude to withstand physical hardship and toil.
- Self-sufficiency (Autarkeia): The ability to be content with very little.
Together, these virtues formed the core of Socrates’s ethical practice as depicted by Xenophon.