Religion in India

1. Origins & Chronology

   • Indo-Aryan Migration: Steppe theory (c. 1500 BCE entry into NW India)
   • Phases:
     • Early Vedic (1500–1000 BCE): �gvedic period (Punjab focus)
     • Late Vedic (1000–500 BCE): Expansion to Gangetic Plain, composition of Brāhmaṇas/Upaniṣads
   • Archaeology: Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) & Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures

2. Sociopolitical Context

   • Tribal Polity: Jana (tribe) → Viś (clan) → Kula (family)
   • Governance: Rājan (tribal chief) with Sabha/Samiti councils
   • Economy: Pastoralism (cattle = primary wealth), limited agriculture

1. Śruti Revelation

   • Vedas considered apauruṣeya (authorless, eternal)
   • Received by Ṛṣis (seers) in meditative states

2. Oral Transmission

   • Precision techniques: Padapāṭha (word-by-word), Kramapāṭha (step-recitation)

3. Ancillary Sciences (Vedāṅgas)

   Vedāṅga	Function	Key Texts
   Śikṣā	Phonetics	Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī
   Vyākaraṇa	Grammar
   Chandas	Prosody
   Nirukta	Etymology	Yāska’s Nirukta
   Jyotiṣa	Astronomy (timing rituals)	Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa
   Kalpa	Ritual procedures	Śrauta Sūtras

1. Cosmic Principles

   • Ṛta: Cosmic order governing nature/sacrifice (maintained by Varuṇa)
   • Satya: Ritual truth (human counterpart to ṛta)
   • Māyā: Creative power (later reinterpreted as illusion)

2. Cosmogony

   • Hymns: Ṛgveda 10.129 (Nāsadīya Sūkta) - creation from void
   • Sacrificial Creation: Puruṣa Sūkta (ṚV 10.90) - cosmic dismemberment
   • Hierarchy of Realms:
     • Dyauḥ (heaven)
     • Antarikṣa (atmosphere)
     • Pṛthvī (earth)

3. Deities (Devās)

   Category	Gods	Functions
   Celestial	Dyauṣ Pitṛ, Sūrya, Uṣas	Cosmic order, light
   Atmospheric	Indra, Vāyu, Parjanya	War, storms, rain
   Terrestrial	Agni, Soma, Pṛthvī	Fire sacrifice, ritual ecstasy

1. Ritual Typology

   • Śrauta Rituals: Complex public rites (3+ sacred fires)
     • Agnicayana: Fire-altar construction
     • Aśvamedha: Horse sacrifice (royal legitimacy)
     • Soma Yajña: Offering deified plant
   • Gṛhya Rituals: Domestic rites (1 fire)
     • Saṃskāras: Life-cycle ceremonies (e.g., upanayana)

2. Ritual Mechanics

   • Four Priests:
     • Hotṛ (Ṛgveda reciter)
     • Adhvaryu (Yajurveda executor)
     • Udgatṛ (Sāmaveda chanter)
     • Brahman (Atharvaveda supervisor)
   • Sacrificial Exchange: Do ut des (“I give so you may give”) theology

1. Human Constitution

   • Breath Vitalism: Prāṇa (life force) > Ātman (later Upaniṣadic self)
   • Post-Mortem States:
     • Pitṛloka: Ancestral heaven (for ritual performers)
     • Naraka: Temporary punishment (no eternal hell)

2. Absence of Reincarnation

   • Early Vedism: Linear afterlife (contrasts with Upaniṣadic saṃsāra)
   • Pitṛyāna vs. Devayāna: Two afterlife paths (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 6.2)

1. Varṇa System

   • Ṛgveda 10.90 (Puruṣa Sūkta): Divine origin of classes:
     • Brāhmaṇa (mouth): Priests
     • Kṣatriya (arms): Rulers/warriors
     • Vaiśya (thighs): Producers
     • Śūdra (feet): Servants

2. Gender Roles

   • Women as ritual partners (saha-dharmiṇī)
   • Female seers: Brahmavādinīs (e.g., Ghosā, Lopāmudrā)

1. Brāhmaṇas (900–700 BCE)

   • Ritual Symbolism: Adhyātma (micro-macrocosm links)
     • e.g., Agnicayana altar = cosmic Puruṣa
   • Power of Speech: Vāc (sacred utterance) as creative force

2. Āraṇyakas (700–500 BCE)

   • “Forest Treatises”: Transition to internalized rituals
   • Proto-Yoga: Prāṇāgnihotra (mental fire offering)

1. Upaniṣadic Shift

   • From external sacrifice → internal knowledge (jñāna-kāṇḍa)
   • Key doctrines: Ātman-Brahman, Karma-Saṃsāra-Mokṣa

2. Survivals in Hinduism

   • Vedic mantras in modern rites (e.g., marriage, death)
   • Revival movements (Arya Samaj)

3. Critiques by Śramaṇa Traditions

   • Buddhist Tevijja Sutta: Rejects Vedic path to union with Brahmā
   • Jain emphasis on ahiṃsā vs. animal sacrifice

Key Terms:

• Yajña: Sacrificial ritual
• Ṛta: Cosmic order
• Devā: Deity (root div = “to shine”)
• Mantra: Sacred formulaic utterance
• Homa: Fire offering

1. Periodization & Context

   • Formative Phase (500–200 BCE): Upaniṣadic shift; rise of Mahājanapadas; Mauryan Empire
   • Golden Age (200 BCE–500 CE): Gupta Empire; Sanskrit literature flourishes
   • Expansion Phase (500–1200 CE): Regional kingdoms; Bhakti movements; temple-building
   • Contrast with Vedism: Replaced ritual-centric Vedism with diverse paths (bhakti/jñāna/karma).

2. Key Catalysts

   • Urbanization along Gangetic Plain
   • Śramaṇa movements (Buddhism/Jainism) challenging Vedic authority
   • Integration of non-Vedic deities (e.g., Śiva/Viṣṇu) and folk traditions

1. Metaphysics

   • Brahman-Ātman: Unity (Advaita) / Qualified non-duality (Viśiṣṭādvaita) / Dualism (Dvaita)
   • Prakṛti-Puruṣa: Sāṃkhya dualism (material vs. conscious principles)
   • Contrast with Buddhism: Rejects anattā (no-self); affirms eternal ātman.
   • Contrast with Vedism: Transcends nature deities (Indra/Agni) for cosmic principles.

2. Soteriology

   • Mokṣa: Liberation from saṃsāra via:
     • Jñāna Yoga (knowledge)
     • Bhakti Yoga (devotion)
     • Karma Yoga (selfless action)
   • Contrast with Jainism: Less emphasis on extreme asceticism; householder-friendly paths.

3. Cosmology

   • Cyclic time: Yugas (Kṛta → Kali) and cosmic dissolution (pralaya)
   • Multilayered universe: 14 lokas (realms)
   • Contrast with Vedism: Replaces tripartite cosmos (dyauḥ-antarikṣa-pṛthvī) with complex Purāṇic models.

1. Vaiṣṇavism

   • Theology: Viṣṇu as supreme; 10 avatāras (Rāma, Kṛṣṇa)
   • Sects: Pāñcarātra (tantric), Vaikhānasa (Vedic continuity)
   • Contrast: Avatāra concept absent in Vedism/Buddhism.

2. Śaivism

   • Forms: Rudra (Vedic remnant) → Śiva as destroyer-regenerator
   • Schools: Pāśupata (ascetic), Kāpālika (transgressive), Kashmir Śaivism (monistic)
   • Contrast with Jainism: Accepts creator deity vs. Jain atheism.

3. Śāktism

   • Devi Theology: Devī as Prakṛti (material force); Mahādevī (Durgā/Kālī)
   • Tantra: Ritual use of maṇḍalas, mantras, yantras
   • Contrast: Goddess supremacy contrasts with Vedic subordinate goddesses (Uṣas).

1. Varṇāśrama Dharma

   • Varṇa: Brāhmaṇa (priests), Kṣatriya (warriors), Vaiśya (traders), Śūdra (servants)
   • Āśramas: Brahmacarya (student), Gṛhastha (householder), Vānaprastha (hermit), Sannyāsa (renunciate)
   • Contrast with Buddhism/Jainism: Explicit rejection of caste (e.g., Buddha’s sangha open to all).

2. Gender Dynamics

   • Idealized femininity: Sītā (devotion) vs. Draupadī (agency) in epics
   • Tantric Śāktism: Female gurus and ritual equality
   • Contrast with Vedism: Vedic female ṛṣis (e.g., Ghosā) decline in Classical era.

1. Domestic Worship

   • Pūjā: Icon (mūrti) worship with offerings (flowers/food)
   • Saṃskāras: 16 life-cycle rites (e.g., upanayana, vivāha)

2. Temple Culture

   • Architecture: Nagara (North), Drāviḍa (South), Vesara (Hybrid) styles
   • Function: Hub for bhakti, art, and social life

3. Pilgrimage (Tīrtha-yātrā)

   • Sacred geography: Vārāṇasī (Śiva), Prayāga (trivenī saṅgama), Mathurā (Kṛṣṇa)
   • Contrast with Vedism: Replaces fire-altars (yajña) with temple-centric worship.

1. Sacred Imagery

   • Viṣṇu: Cakra (discus), Śaṅkha (conch), reclining on Ananta
   • Śiva: Naṭarāja (cosmic dance), liṅga, trident
   • Devi: Durgā slaying Mahiṣāsura, Kālī standing on Śiva

2. Narrative Art

   • Epics/Purāṇas in temple reliefs (e.g., Mahābalipuram’s “Descent of the Ganges”)
   • Contrast with Buddhism: Hindu art emphasizes deity multiplicity vs. Buddha-centric icons.

1. Buddhism

   • Debates: Hindu-Buddhist dialogues at Nālandā/Vikramaśīla
   • Syncretism: Adoption of Buddhist meditation (dhyāna) into Yoga
   • Critique: Mīmāṃsā rejection of Buddhist impermanence (anitya)

2. Jainism

   • Shared: Ahiṃsā ideals, karma doctrine
   • Divergence: Jains reject creator God; Hindus absorb Jain figures (e.g., Ṛṣabha as Viṣṇu avatāra)

Key Terms:

• Bhakti: Devotion to personal deity
• Varṇāśrama: Caste-life stage system
• Mokṣa: Liberation from rebirth
• Saguna/Nirguna Brahman: God with/without attributes
• Darśana: Philosophical “viewpoint”

1. Hindu Traditions

   • Vedism (1500–500 BCE):
     • Ṛta: Cosmic order maintained through sacrifice (yajña).
     • Polytheistic Henotheism: Devas as natural forces (Indra/Agni/Varuṇa).
     • Material Vitalism: Primacy of elements (earth, water, fire) and Prāṇa (life-breath).
   • Upaniṣadic Shift (800–500 BCE):
     • Brahman: Impersonal absolute reality (vs. Vedic personal gods).
     • Ātman: Eternal self replacing ritual-bound prāṇa (Vedic self → Upaniṣadic self).
   • Classical Systems:
     • Advaita Vedānta: Non-dualism (Brahman-only; world as illusion Māyā).
     • Sāṃkhya: Radical dualism - Puruṣa (consciousness) vs. Prakṛti (matter).
     • Vaiśeṣika: Atomism (paramāṇu) with 6 reality categories (Padārtha).

2. Buddhism:

   • Śūnyatā: Emptiness (no inherent existence; contrasts with Brahman/Ātman).
   • Pratītyasamutpāda: Dependent origination (rejects permanent substances).
   • Contrast: Denies Ātman (Anattā doctrine).

3. Jainism:

   • Anekāntavāda: Reality has infinite aspects (vs. Hindu/Buddhist monism/emptiness).
   • Dravya: 6 eternal substances (e.g., Jīva soul, Pudgala matter).

1. Hindu Frameworks:

   • Vedism:
     • Puruṣa Sūkta: Cosmic dismemberment (Ṛgveda 10.90).
     • Tripartite Cosmos: Dyauḥ (heaven), Antarikṣa (atmosphere), Pṛthvī (earth).
   • Purāṇic Expansion:
     • Cyclic Yuga Ages (Kṛta→Kali) + Kalpa (cosmic day of Brahma).
     • 14 Lokas (realms); periodic dissolution (Pralaya).

2. Buddhism:

   • Cyclic Samsāra: 31 realms of existence (Deva, human, hell realms).
   • Contrast: No creator god (vs. Purāṇic Brahma).

3. Jainism:

   • Eternal Loka: Uncreated universe with Mount Meru axis.
   • Contrast: Rejects cosmic dissolution (vs. Hindu pralaya).

1. Evolution in Hinduism:

   • Vedism:
     • No unified self; ritual-bound prāṇa → Pitṛloka (ancestral heaven).
   • Upaniṣadic Revolution:
     • Ātman = Brahman (eternal, identical to ultimate reality).
     • Emergence of Karma-driven Samsāra (rebirth cycle).
   • Classical Debates:
     • Advaita: Ātman-Brahman non-duality (Adi Shankara).
     • Dvaita: Eternal soul-God distinction (Madhvacharya).

2. Buddhist Counterpoint:

   • Anattā: No permanent self; only impermanent aggregates (Skandha).

3. Jain Synthesis:

   • Eternal but plural Jīvas (souls) trapped by karma-matter.

1. Shared Foundations:

   • Karma: Moral cause-effect (but differing mechanisms):
     • Hindu: Ritual/ethical actions → rebirth quality.
     • Buddhist: Intent (cetanā) shapes rebirth.
     • Jain: Karma as physical particles binding soul.
   • Cyclic Time:
     • Hindu: Yuga cycles.
     • Buddhist: Kalpas with no beginning.
     • Jain: Eternal cosmic wheel (Kālachakra).

2. Vedic → Classical Shift:

   • From linear afterlife (Devayāna) → cyclical Samsāra.

Core Backlinks:

• Ṛta → Vedic ritualism → Contrasts with Dharma
• Ātman evolution: Vedic prāṇa → Upaniṣadic unity → Classical debates
• Brahman vs. Śūnyatā: Hindu-Buddhist ontological divide
• Karma mechanics: Hindu ethical vs. Jain physical vs. Buddhist psychological

1. Vedism (1500–500 BCE)

   • Goal: Abhyudaya (prosperity) via ritual correctness → access Pitṛloka (ancestral heaven).
   • Mechanism: Yajña (sacrifice) maintains Ṛta; no rebirth concept.
   • Afterlife: Linear path – Devayāna (path of gods) vs. Pitṛyāna (path of ancestors).

2. Upaniṣadic Revolution (800–500 BCE)

   • Goal: Mokṣa (liberation from Saṃsāra) via Self-Brahman realization.
   • Mechanism: Jñāna Yoga (knowledge) > ritual; karma as binding force.
   • Key Shift: Ritual success → Inner wisdom (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.5).

3. Classical Paths (Yogas)

   Path	Mechanism	Textual Basis	Metaphysical Link
   Jñāna Yoga	Discernment (viveka) of real vs. unreal	Vivekachūḍāmaṇi	Advaita Vedānta (non-duality)
   Bhakti Yoga	Devotion to Ishvara (Viṣṇu/Śiva)	Bhagavad Gītā Ch. 12	Saguna Brahman (God with form)
   Karma Yoga	Selfless action (niṣkāma karma)	Bhagavad Gītā Ch. 3	Dharma as cosmic duty
   Rāja Yoga	Meditation (dhyāna) + ethical discipline	Yoga Sūtras	Puruṣa-Prakṛti dualism

4. Vedāntic Variations

   • Advaita: Mokṣa = dismantling ignorance (Avidyā) of Brahman-Ātman unity.
   • Viśiṣṭādvaita: Mokṣa = eternal service to Viṣṇu in Vaikuṇṭha.
   • Dvaita: Eternal distinction; souls attain Śāyujya (proximity to God).

1. Core Framework: Four Noble Truths

   • Dukkha (suffering) → Samudaya (craving) → Nirodha (cessation) → Magga (path).

2. Path to Nirvāṇa

   • Noble Eightfold Path:
     • Wisdom: Right View, Right Intention.
     • Ethics: Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood.
     • Meditation: Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration.
   • Mechanism: Extinguish craving (Taṇhā) via insight into Anattā (no-self) and Śūnyatā (emptiness).

3. Schools Contrast

   Tradition	Goal	Path Emphasis
   Theravāda	Arahantship (self-liberation)	Vipassanā (insight) + Sīla (morality)
   Mahāyāna	Buddhahood for all beings	Bodhicitta + compassion (Karuṇā)
   Vajrayāna	Swift enlightenment	Tantric rituals + guru devotion

1. Goal: Kevala Jñāna (omniscience) → liberation from Saṃsāra.
2. Path: Ratnatraya
   • Samyak Darśana: Right faith in Jīva-Ajīva distinction.
   • Samyak Jñāna: Right knowledge of reality via Anekāntavāda.
   • Samyak Chāritra: Right conduct through Mahāvratas (5 vows).
3. Karma Mechanics:
   • Karma as material (Pudgala) particles binding the soul.
   • Liberation via Tapas (austerity) to burn karma.

1. Saṃsāra: Cyclic rebirth driven by ignorance/karma (contrasts with Vedic linear afterlife).
2. Ethical Foundation:
   • Ahimsā (non-violence) in all traditions (most absolute in Jainism).
   • Dharma/Dhamma as moral compass.
3. Guru-Disciple Dynamic:
   • Hindu: Guru-shishya tradition.
   • Buddhist: Kalyanamitra (spiritual friend).
   • Jain: Ācārya guidance.

• Mokṣa vs. Nirvāṇa: Hindu unification vs. Buddhist cessation.
• Karma mechanics: Contrasting Hindu ethical, Buddhist psychological, and Jain physical models.
• Ātman debates: Eternal self (Hindu/Jain) vs. no-self (Buddhist Anattā).
• Ascetic practices: Jain Sallekhana vs. Hindu Sannyāsa vs. Buddhist monasticism.

Glossary:

• Avidyā: Ignorance binding soul (Hinduism/Buddhism).
• Bodhicitta: Mahāyāna vow to liberate all beings.
• Kaivalya: Isolation of pure soul (Jainism/Sāṃkhya).
• Prasāda: Divine grace in Bhakti traditions.
• Tapas: Austerity to burn karma (Jainism).

1. Dharma

   • Hinduism: Cosmic/social duty (varṇa/āśrama-specific; Manusmṛti).
   • Buddhism: Dhamma = universal moral law (vs. caste duties).
   • Jainism: Right conduct (Samyak Chāritra) through vows.

2. Karma

   • Ethical cause-effect: Intentional actions → future consequences.
   • Contrast:
     • Hindu: Ritual + ethical dimensions (Bhagavad Gītā 2.47).
     • Buddhist: Psychological (Cetanā-based; Majjhima Nikāya 135).
     • Jain: Physical particles binding soul (Pudgala).

3. Ahimsā (Non-violence)

   • Jainism: Absolute (e.g., Sallekhana fasting).
   • Buddhism: First precept (avoid harming sentient beings).
   • Hinduism: Contextual (permitted for kṣatriya Svadharma).

4. Purusharthas (Human Goals)

   • Hindu Quadruple Aim:
     • Dharma (duty), Artha (wealth), Kāma (pleasure), Mokṣa (liberation).
   • Contrast: Buddhism/Jainism prioritize liberation over worldly goals.

1. Vedic Ethics (1500–500 BCE)

   • Ritual Correctness: Ṛta > individual morality.
   • Social Order: Emergent Varṇa duties (Ṛgveda 10.90).
   • Limitation: Animal sacrifice vs. later ahimsā.

2. Upaniṣadic Shift (800–500 BCE)

   • Internalization: Truthfulness (Satya), self-control (Dama) > rituals.
   • Karma Ethics: Rebirth based on moral actions (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13).

3. Classical Frameworks

   Source	Key Principles	Emphasis
   Bhagavad Gītā	Nishkāma Karma (selfless action)	Duty without attachment
   Yoga Sūtras	Yamas/Niyamas (e.g., ahimsā, satya)	Ethical preconditions for liberation
   Dharmaśāstras	Caste/gender duties (e.g., Stridharma)	Social stability

1. Core Framework: Noble Eightfold Path

   • Ethical Division:
     • Right Speech (no lying/gossip).
     • Right Action (no killing/stealing/sexual misconduct).
     • Right Livelihood (non-harmful trades).

2. Moral Codes

   • Lay Precepts (Pañcaśīla):
     1. No killing.
     2. No stealing.
     3. No sexual misconduct.
     4. No false speech.
     5. No intoxicants.
   • Monastic Rules (Vinaya Piṭaka): 227+ rules (e.g., celibacy, no money).

3. Mahāyāna Expansion

   • Bodhisattva Vow: Postpone nirvāṇa to save others.
   • Upāya-Kauśalya: Skillful means (flexible ethics for compassion).

1. Ratnatraya

   • Samyak Darśana (faith in non-absolutism).
   • Samyak Jñāna (knowledge of reality).
   • Samyak Chāritra (conduct via vows).

2. Five Mahāvratas (Great Vows)

   Vow	Practice	Radicality
   Ahimsā	No harm to any life (avoid root vegetables)	Most absolute among traditions
   Satya	Truthfulness without exception
   Asteya	Non-stealing
   Brahmacharya	Celibacy (even in thought)
   Aparigraha	Non-possession (monks own nothing)

3. Applied Ethics

   • Anekāntavāda: Multiple viewpoints → tolerance.
   • Syādvāda: “Maybe” logic to avoid dogmatism.

1. Vedic → Upaniṣadic
   • External Yajña → Internal purity (Tapas).
2. Śramaṇa Influence
   • Hindu adoption of Ahimsā/renunciation (countering ritual violence).
3. Bhakti Revolution
   • Caste critique (e.g., Nayanars/Alvars saints).

• Dharma → Contrasts with Buddhist Dhamma (universal vs. caste-bound).
• Karma → Ethical intent (Buddhist) vs. ritual correctness (Vedic).
• Ahimsā spectrum: Jain absolutism → Hindu contextualism.
• Purusharthas vs. Buddhist Four Noble Truths: Worldly goals vs. renunciation.

Glossary:

• Svadharma: Personal duty (caste-specific).
• Yamas: Ethical restraints (e.g., non-violence, truthfulness).
• Upāya-Kauśalya: Skillful means (Mahāyāna).
• Sallekhana: Jain ritual fasting unto death.
• Kalyanamitra: Buddhist spiritual friend.

1. Śruti (Revealed)

   Text	Period	Language	Content	Significance
   Ṛgveda Saṃhitā	1500–1200 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	1,028 hymns to deities (Indra, Agni)	Oldest extant Indo-European text
   Sāmaveda	1200–1000 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	Melodic chants (ṛc melodies)	Liturgical manual for Udgātṛ priests
   Yajurveda	1100–900 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	Ritual formulas (Black: prose; White: commentary)	Manual for Adhvaryu priests
   Atharvaveda	1000–900 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	Spells, healing, domestic rites	Folk traditions + ritual magic
   Brāhmaṇas	900–700 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	Ritual exegesis (e.g., Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa)	Details symbolic meaning of yajña
   Āraṇyakas	700–600 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	”Forest treatises” (ritual internalization)	Transition to Upaniṣads
   Upaniṣads	800–500 BCE	Vedic Sanskrit	Philosophical dialogues (e.g., Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya)	Foundation for Vedānta

2. Smṛti (Remembered)

   • Itihāsa (Epics):
     • Mahābhārata (400 BCE–400 CE): 100,000 verses; includes Bhagavad Gītā (soteriology of yoga paths).
     • Rāmāyaṇa (500 BCE–200 CE): 24,000 verses; life of Rāma (ideal dharma).
   • Purāṇas (300–1200 CE):
     • 18 Mahāpurāṇas (e.g., Viṣṇu Purāṇa – cosmogony; Śiva Purāṇa – Śaivism).
     • 18 Upapurāṇas (regional traditions).
   • Dharmaśāstras (200 BCE–300 CE):
     • Manusmṛti – social laws (varṇa, gender duties).
     • Yājñavalkyasmṛti – more liberal than Manu.
   • Tantras (500–1300 CE):
     • Śaiva/Śākta texts (e.g., Vijñāna Bhairava) – ritual, yoga, mantras.

3. Darśanic Texts

   School	Key Text	Author	Content
   Vedānta	Brahma Sūtras	Bādarāyaṇa	Systematizes Upaniṣadic teachings
   Sāṃkhya	Sāṃkhya Kārikā	Īśvarakṛṣṇa	Dualism of puruṣa-prakṛti
   Yoga	Yoga Sūtras	Patañjali	Aṣṭāṅga yoga (8-limbed path)
   Nyāya	Nyāya Sūtras	Gautama	Logic, epistemology
   Vaiśeṣika	Vaiśeṣika Sūtra	Kaṇāda	Atomism, 6 reality categories
   Mīmāṃsā	Mīmāṃsā Sūtra	Jaimini	Vedic ritual hermeneutics

1. Pāli Canon (Theravāda)

   • Tipiṭaka (5th–1st c. BCE):

     Basket	Content	Key Texts
     Vinaya Piṭaka	Monastic rules (227 for monks, 311 for nuns)	Pātimokkha
     Sutta Piṭaka	Discourses of Buddha	Dhammapada, Majjhima Nikāya
     Abhidhamma Piṭaka	Philosophical analysis	Dhammasaṅgaṇī

2. Mahāyāna Sūtras (1st c. BCE–5th c. CE)

   Text	Tradition	Key Doctrine
   Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras	Wisdom focus	Śūnyatā (emptiness)
   Lotus Sūtra	Universalist	Ekayāna (one vehicle to Buddhahood)
   Heart Sūtra	Concise wisdom	”Form is emptiness”
   Pure Land Sūtras	Devotional	Faith in Amitābha Buddha → rebirth in Sukhāvatī
   Avataṃsaka Sūtra	Huayan/Kegon	Interpenetration of all phenomena

3. Tantric/Vajrayāna Texts (7th–12th c. CE)

   • Guhyasamāja Tantra: Deity yoga, mandala practices.
   • Hevajra Tantra: Yoginī cults, subtle body energy.
   • Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bardo Thödol): Death/rebirth process.

1. Śvetāmbara Canon

   • Āgamas (c. 300 BCE–5th c. CE):

     Category	Key Texts	Content
     Aṅga (Limbs)	Ācārāṅga (conduct), Sūtrakṛtāṅga	Monastic rules, refutation of heresies
     Upāṅga	Prajñāpanā Sūtra	Cosmology, karma theory
     Cheda Sūtras	Niśītha Sūtra	Expiation for monastic faults
     Mūla Sūtras	Uttarādhyayana Sūtra	Dialogues on liberation

2. Digambara Texts

   • Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama: Karma theory (6 sections).
   • Kasāyaprābhṛta: Passions and their destruction.
   • Anuyogas: Exegetical works (e.g., Mahāpurāṇa by Jinasena).

3. Commentarial Literature

   • Tattvārtha Sūtra (Umasvati): Unified epistemology/metaphysics.
   • Ācārāṅga Bhāṣya (Śīlāṅka): Commentary on conduct.

1. Oral to Written

   • Vedas: Memorized for millennia (śākhās = branches).
   • Buddhist Councils:
     • 1st (483 BCE): Sutta recitation.
     • 4th (1st c. BCE): Pāli Canon written in Sri Lanka.
   • Jain Schism (c. 300 BCE): Śvetāmbaras (written canon) vs. Digambaras (rejected canon).

2. Sectarian Expansion:

   • Hindu: Purāṇas promote Vaiṣṇavism/Śaivism (e.g., Bhāgavata Purāṇa for Kṛṣṇa bhakti).
   • Buddhist: Mahāyāna sūtras claim higher authenticity (Buddhavacana).

3. Commentarial Traditions:

   • Hindu: Śaṅkara’s Brahmasūtra Bhāṣya (Advaita).
   • Buddhist: Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Madhyamaka).
   • Jain: Haribhadra’s Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya (comparative philosophy).

1. Hindu:
   • Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad references lost Vedic schools (e.g., Kāṇva recension).
2. Buddhist:
   • Early Mahāyāna sūtras (e.g., Tathāgataguhya Sūtra) preserved only in Tibetan/Chinese.
3. Jain:
   • Digambara rejection of Śvetāmbara Āgamas → independent texts.

Key Backlinks:

• Śruti vs. Smṛti: Hindu revelation hierarchy.
• Buddhavacana: Buddhist “word of Buddha” debates.
• Āgama (Jainism): Jain canonical authority.
• Vedāṅgas: Auxiliary Vedic sciences (phonetics, astronomy).

1. Viṣṇu as Supreme

   • Para Brahman: Ultimate reality beyond form (contrasts with Śaiva non-dualism).
   • Antaryāmī: Immanent indweller in all beings.
   • Vyūha Doctrine: Emanations (Vāsudeva, Saṅkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha).

2. Avatāra Theory

   • Daśāvatāra (10 incarnations):

     Avatāra	Role	Text Reference
     Rāma	Dharma exemplar	Rāmāyaṇa
     Kṛṣṇa	Divine lover/philosopher	Bhagavad Gītā, Bhāgavata Purāṇa
     Varāha	Cosmic boar (rescues earth)	Varāha Purāṇa
     Narasimha	Man-lion (protects Prahlāda)	Bhāgavata Purāṇa Canto 7

   • Puruṣottama: “Supreme Person” beyond emanations (Bhagavad Gītā 15.18).

3. Cosmology

   • Vaikuṇṭha: Eternal abode beyond material universes.
   • Kāraṇodakaśāyī Viṣṇu: Viṣṇu reclining on causal ocean (creates universes).

1. Śrīvaiṣṇavism (South India)

   • Theology: Viṣiṣṭādvaita (qualified non-dualism) by Rāmānuja.
   • Śrī (Lakṣmī): Mediatrix of grace (divine consort).
   • Subschools:
     • Vaḍagalai (Northern): Monkey-way (self-effort + grace; Vedānta Deśika).
     • Teṉkalai (Southern): Cat-way (sole reliance on grace; Pillai Lokācārya).
   • Practice: Prapatti (surrender), temple-centric worship.

2. Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism (Bengal)

   • Founder: Caitanya Mahāprabhu (Kṛṣṇa as supreme form).
   • Theology: Acintya Bhedābheda (inconceivable oneness/difference).
   • Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa: Divine couple (highest expression of love).
   • Practice: Saṅkīrtana (ecstatic chanting), Rāgānugā Bhakti (spontaneous devotion).

3. Brahma Sampradāya

   • Founder: Madhvācārya (Dvaita Vedānta – strict dualism).
   • Tāratamya: Hierarchical reality (Viṣṇu > Lakṣmī > souls > matter).
   • Texts: Sarvamūla Grantha (Madhva’s commentaries).

4. Rudra Sampradāya

   • Śuddhādvaita (pure non-dualism) by Vallabha.
   • Puṣṭi Mārga: Path of grace (emphasizes Kṛṣṇa’s childhood).
   • Practice: Sevā (deity service), Aṣṭayāma (8 daily services).

5. Nimbārka Sampradāya

   • Dvaitādvaita (duality-nonduality) by Nimbārka.
   • Yugala Upāsana: Worship of Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa as divine pair.

6. Ekasarana Dharma (Assam)

   • Founder: Śaṅkaradeva (simplified devotion).
   • Texts: Kīrtana Ghosā (vernacular hymns).

1. Jīva (Soul)

   • Eternal servant of Viṣṇu (Śeṣa-Śeṣī Bhāva).
   • Three States:
     • Baddha (bound), Mukta (liberated), Nitya (eternally free).

2. Liberation Pathways

   • Bhakti Yoga: 9 practices (śravaṇa, kīrtana, smaraṇa, etc.).
   • Rasa Theory: 5 relational moods (e.g., Śānta, Dāsya, Sākhya, Vātsalya, Mādhurya).
   • Ultimate Goal:
     • Sālokya (abode of God)
     • Sārūpya (same form)
     • Sāmīpya (proximity)
     • Sāyujya (merging – rejected by Dvaita).

1. Temple Worship

   • Arcana: Deity service (Mūrti as embodied God).
   • Utsava: Festivals (e.g., Ratha Yātrā, Janmāṣṭamī).

2. Personal Devotion

   • Nāma Japa: Repetition of divine names (e.g., “Hare Kṛṣṇa”).
   • Bhāgavata Saptāha: 7-day recitation of Bhāgavata Purāṇa.

3. Initiation

   • Dīkṣā: Formal entry via guru (receives Mantra).
   • Vaiṣṇava Tilaka: Forehead marking (U/V shape).

1. Śrīvaiṣṇava:

   • Divya Prabandha: Tamil hymns by Āḻvārs (equal to Vedas).
   • Maṇḍala Pūjā: Complex temple rituals (Pāñcarātra Āgamas).

2. Gauḍīya:

   • Guru-paramparā: Disciplic succession (Brahmā-Madhva-Caitanya).
   • Manjari Svarūpa: Self-identification as Rādhā’s handmaiden.

3. Puṣṭi Mārga:

   • Bāla-Kṛṣṇa Focus: Childhood pastimes (makhan chor).
   • Havelī Saṅgīta: Devotional music in temples.

1. With Śaivism:

   • Debates on supremacy (Viṣṇu vs. Śiva) in Skanda Purāṇa.
   • Syncretism: Harihara icon (half-Viṣṇu, half-Śiva).

2. With Buddhism:

   • Avalokiteśvara (Buddhist) → Padmanābha form of Viṣṇu.

3. With Islam:

   • Sants (Kabīr, Nānak) blended bhakti with Sufi themes.

1. Global Movements:

   • ISKCON (1966): Gauḍīya-based; global Kṛṣṇa consciousness.
   • Swaminarayan: Gujarati Vaiṣṇavism (Akṣara-Puruṣottama Darsana).

2. Reform Debates:

   • Caste in temples (e.g., Sabrimala controversy).
   • Gender roles: Female gurus in ISKCON.

Key Backlinks:

• Avatāra → Links to Rāma, Kṛṣṇa, Bhāgavata Purāṇa
• Viśiṣṭādvaita vs. Dvaita: Śrīvaiṣṇava-Brahma Sampradāya contrasts
• Pāñcarātra → Temple rituals, Vyūha doctrine
• Rāsa Līlā → Gauḍīya theology of divine play
• Śaraṇāgati → Śrīvaiṣṇava surrender vs. Gauḍīya Rāgānugā

1. Śiva as Supreme

   • Parameśvara: Supreme being beyond Brahman (contrasts with Vaiṣṇava Viṣṇu as sustainer) .
   • Pañchakṛtya: Five cosmic functions—creation (sṛṣṭi), preservation (sthiti), dissolution (saṃhāra), concealment (tirobhāva), grace (anugraha) .
   • Liṅga-Yoni: Aniconic symbol of transcendent-immanent reality; union of consciousness (Śiva) and energy (Śakti) .

2. Forms of Śiva

   Form	Significance	Textual Reference
   Natarāja	Cosmic dancer (destroys ignorance)	Chidambaram Stotra
   Rudra	Vedic “Howler” (fierce aspect)	Ṛgveda 2.33
   Dakṣiṇāmūrti	Silent teacher of yoga	Śiva Purāṇa
   Ardhanārīśvara	Androgynous unity of Śiva-Śakti	Kūrma Purāṇa

3. Cosmology

   • Mount Kailāsa: Abode of Śiva; axis of universe .
   • Bhairava: Fierce aspect governing time (kāla) and dissolution .

1. Śaiva Siddhānta (Tamil Nadu/Sri Lanka)

   • Theology: Dualistic realism—Pati (Lord), Paśu (soul), Pāśa (bonds) .
   • Liberation: Grace (arul) through Caryā-Kriyā-Yoga-Jñāna (4-fold path) .
   • Subschools:
     • Meykaṇḍa Sampradāya: Pluralistic souls (Meykaṇḍar, 13th c.) .
     • Śrīkaṇṭha Advaita: Monistic-leaning (Śrīkaṇṭha’s Brahma Sūtra Bhāṣya) .

2. Kashmiri Śaivism (Trika)

   • Founders: Vasugupta (9th c.), Abhinavagupta (10th c.) .
   • Theology: Pratyabhijñā (recognition of Self as Śiva); consciousness (cit) vibrates as universe (spanda) .
   • Texts: Śiva Sūtras, Tantrāloka.

3. Vīraśaivism (Karnataka)

   • Founder: Basava (12th c.); rejects caste, Vedic ritual .
   • Practice: Wearing iṣṭaliṅga (personal Śiva emblem); equality of women .

4. Pāśupata (Oldest ascetic order)

   • Rituals: Deliberate transgression (avadhūta) to overcome ego .
   • Goal: Rudraśāyujya (union with Rudra) .

5. Nātha (Hatha Yoga lineage)

   • Key Figures: Matsyendranāth, Gorakṣanāth .
   • Practice: Kuṇḍalinī Yoga to awaken Śakti .

6. Aghora (Transgressive Tantra)

   • Practices: Cremation-ground rituals; transcendence of duality .

1. Śakti (Divine Power)

   • Inseparable from Śiva (like heat from fire); worshipped as Pārvatī, Kālī, Durgā .
   • Contrast with Vaiṣṇavism: Śakti as co-equal vs. Lakṣmī as consort .

2. Nature of Soul

   • Śaiva Siddhānta: Eternal but distinct souls (aṇu) .
   • Kashmiri Śaivism: No separate soul; only Śiva’s consciousness .

3. Liberation Pathways

   Path	Mechanism	Tradition
   Bhakti Mārga	Devotion (e.g., Nayanar poets)	Tamil Śaivism
   Yoga Mārga	Kuṇḍalinī ascent through cakras	Nātha/Kashmiri
   Jñāna Mārga	Self-recognition (pratyabhijñā)	Kashmiri Śaivism
   Kriyā Mārga	Ritual (āgamic pūjā)	Siddhānta

1. Temple Worship

   • Liṅgābhiṣeka: Ritual bathing of liṅga with milk/water .
   • Mahāśivarātri: All-night fasting/meditation .

2. Asceticism

   • Sannyāsa: Renunciation; ash-smeared Nāgā ascetics .
   • Tapas: Austerities to burn karma .

3. Tantric Rites

   • Yoginī Cult: Worship of 64 goddesses; cremation-ground rituals .
   • Nyāsa: Mantra-infusion of the body .

1. Śaiva Siddhānta:

   • Tiruvarutpa: “Divine grace songs” of Nayanars .
   • Caryā Pāda: Ritual service in temples .

2. Kashmiri Śaivism:

   • Śāmbhavopāya: Non-dual meditation beyond mantra .
   • Spanda Kārikā: Contemplation of divine vibration .

3. Vīraśaivism:

   • Śaraṇas: Devotee-community equality .
   • Aṇḍa: Funerary urn symbolizing rebirth .

1. With Vaiṣṇavism:

   • Debates on supremacy (e.g., Śiva vs. Viṣṇu in Skanda Purāṇa) .
   • Syncretism: Harihara icons (half-Śiva/half-Viṣṇu) .

2. With Buddhism:

   • Shared tantric practices (e.g., mahāmudrā in Vajrayāna) .
   • Śiva as Maheśvara in Buddhist tantras .

3. With Śāktism:

   • Overlap in goddess worship; Śakti as Śiva’s active aspect .

1. Global Movements:

   • Himalayan Academy: Diaspora Śaiva Siddhānta Church .
   • Kaṭhpīā Ascetics: Nāgā sādhus at Kumbh Melā .

2. Contemporary Issues:

   • Temple entry rights (e.g., Sabarimala controversy) .
   • Eco-Śaivism: Reverence for nature as Śiva’s manifestation .

Key Backlinks:

• Liṅga → Symbolism of formless transcendence vs. Vaiṣṇava mūrti worship
• Śakti → Contrast with Śrī Vaiṣṇavism’s subordination of Lakṣmī
• Pāśupata → Proto-tantric roots influencing later traditions
• Natarāja → Cosmic dance as counter to Vaiṣṇava avatāra narratives

1. Devī as Supreme

   • Ādi Parāśakti: Ultimate reality beyond form; source of Trinity (Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Śiva) .
   • Prakṛti: Cosmic energy manifesting as material world (contrasts with Vaiṣṇava Puruṣa-centricity) .
   • Mahāvidyās: 10 Wisdom-Goddess forms (e.g., Kālī, Tārā, Tripurasundarī) .

2. Cosmic Functions

   • Sṛṣṭi (Creation): Lalitā Tripurasundarī
   • Sthiti (Preservation): Pārvatī
   • Saṃhāra (Destruction): Kālī/Chinnamastā
   • Tirobhāva (Concealment): Bagalāmukhī
   • Anugraha (Grace): Bhuvaneśvarī

3. Cosmology

   • Śrī Yantra: Geometric diagram of cosmic creation .
   • Kāmakalā: Triadic symbol of divine desire (Icchā-Jñāna-Kriyā Śaktis) .

1. Śrī Vidyā (South India/Kashmir)

   • Deity Focus: Tripurasundarī (Lalitā) as benevolent queen .
   • Practice: Śrī Cakra worship; Navāvaraṇa Pūjā (9-circuit ritual) .
   • Texts: Vāmakeśvara Tantra, Saundarya Lahari .

2. Kālī Kula (Bengal/Assam)

   • Deity Focus: Kālī as transformative darkness .
   • Practice: Śava Sādhanā (cremation-ground rituals); animal sacrifice .
   • Texts: Kālī Tantra, Mahānirvāṇa Tantra .

3. Saura-Śākta Syncretism (Odisha)

   • Sūrya-Chāyā: Sun Goddess worship (Konark Temple) .
   • Texts: Saura Tantra .

4. Tibetan Vajrayāna Integration

   • Dākinīs as wisdom embodiments; syncretism with Tārā .

1. Śakti Tattva

   • Divine energy as immanent reality; Śiva as static consciousness (Cit) .
   • Contrast with Śaivism: Śakti > Śiva (vs. Śaiva equality) .

2. Liberation Pathways

   Path	Mechanism	Tradition
   Kaula Mārga	Transgressive rituals (5 Ms: madya, māṃsa, matsya, mudrā, maithuna)	Kālī Kula
   Samayā	Internalized worship (mental rituals)	Śrī Vidyā
   Yoginī Cult	Goddess-circle practices (64 Yoginīs)	Medieval Tantra

3. Kuṇḍalinī Dynamics

   • Awakening serpent power through cakras → union with Śiva in Sahasrāra .

1. Temple Worship

   • Navarātri: 9-night festival (Durgā’s victory over Mahiṣāsura) .
   • Kumārī Pūjā: Worship of prepubescent girls as Devī incarnate .

2. Tantric Rites

   • Nyāsa: Mantra-placement on body parts .
   • Yantra Pūjā: Geometric diagram worship (e.g., Śrī Cakra) .

3. Asceticism

   • Śākta Sannyāsinīs: Female renunciates (e.g., Mā Ānandamayī) .

1. Śrī Vidyā:

   • Śodaśī: Ritual worship of Tripurasundarī as 16-year-old .
   • Parāparā Vidyā: Secret mantras (e.g., 15-syllable Śrī Vidyā) .

2. Kālī Kula:

   • Śmaśāna Sādhanā: Midnight meditation in cremation grounds .
   • Bali: Ritual offering (historically animal, now symbolic) .

3. Bengal Vaiṣṇava-Śākta Syncretism:

   • Rādhā-Kālī: Fusion of Kṛṣṇa devotion with Kālī’s fierceness .

1. With Śaivism:

   • Ardhanārīśvara: Theological unity debates .
   • Kashmiri Trika: Shared non-dual metaphysics (pratyabhijñā) .

2. With Buddhism:

   • Tārā ↔ Kurukullā: Cross-traditional goddess forms .
   • Chinnamastā in both Hindu/Buddhist Tantra .

3. With Folk Traditions:

   • Grāmadevatā: Village goddesses (e.g., Mariamman) absorbed as Devī forms .

1. Global Movements:

   • Shree Maa (Kālī ashram in California) .
   • Art of Living: Śrī Vidyā elements in advanced courses .

2. Feminist Reinterpretations:

   • Devī as symbol of female empowerment .
   • Critique of patriarchal ritual elements (e.g., animal sacrifice) .

Key Backlinks:

• Mahāvidyās → Links to Kālī, Tārā, Chinnamastā
• Śrī Cakra vs. Liṅga: Geometric vs. aniconic worship
• Kaula Mārga → Transgressive practices debated in orthodox Hinduism
• Devī Māhātmya → Core narrative of Durgā’s cosmic victory

1. Panentheism

   • Saguna Brahman-Nirguna Brahman: Worship of personal deities (Viṣṇu, Śiva, Devī, Gaṇeśa, Sūrya) as manifestations of formless Absolute.
   • Pañcāyatana Pūjā: Ritual worship of five deities in a circle (symbolizing unity of Brahman).
   • Contrast with sectarian traditions: Rejects exclusive deity allegiance (vs. Vaiṣṇavism/Śaivism).

2. Advaita Vedānta Core

   • Ātman-Brahman Unity: Liberation through realizing non-duality (Jñāna Yoga).
   • Māyā: World as relative reality (vivarta vāda).
   • Contrast with Dvaita: Rejects eternal soul-God distinction.

3. Scriptural Authority

   • Triple Canon (Prasthānatrayī):
     • Upaniṣads (philosophical basis)
     • Brahma Sūtras (systematic framework)
     • Bhagavad Gītā (practical ethics)
   • Smṛti Supremacy: Dharmaśāstras (e.g., Manusmṛti) as social guide.

1. Ādi Śaṅkara (788–820 CE)

   • Established four Maṭhas (monasteries):

     Maṭha	Location	Veda	Deity Focus
     Śṛṅgeri	Karnataka	Yajurveda	Śāradā (Devī)
     Dvārakā	Gujarat	Sāmaveda	Śiva
     Pūri	Odisha	Ṛgveda	Jagannātha
     Jyotir	Uttarakhand	Atharvaveda	Bādrināth

   • Revival Strategy:
     • Debated Buddhist/Mīmāṃsā scholars
     • Composed devotional hymns (e.g., Śivanandalaharī)

2. Post-Śaṅkara Traditions

   • Vācaspati Miśra (9th c.): Harmonized Advaita with Nyāya.
   • Vidyāraṇya (14th c.): Authored Pañcadaśī; guided Vijayanagara Empire.

1. Sandhyāvandana

   • Daily Vedic twilight ritual:
     • Ācamana (purification)
     • Prāṇāyāma (breath control)
     • Gāyatrī Mantra recitation (Ṛgveda 3.62.10)

2. Pañcāyatana Pūjā Mechanics

   Deity	Symbol	Position	Mantra
   Śiva	Sphaṭika Liṅga	Center	Oṃ namaḥ śivāya
   Viṣṇu	Śālagrāma	Northeast	Oṃ namo nārāyaṇāya
   Devī	Yantra/Swarna Mṛttikā	Southeast	Oṃ aiṃ hrīṃ klīṃ cāmuṇḍāyai
   Gaṇeśa	Red Sindoor Stone	Southwest	Oṃ gaṃ gaṇapataye namaḥ
   Sūrya	Copper Disc	Northwest	Oṃ hraṃ hrīṃ saḥ sūryāya

3. Lifecycle Rites (Saṃskāra)

   • Vedic ceremonies: Upanayana, Vivāha (marriage), Antyeṣṭi (funeral).
   • Contrast with Tantra: Avoids transgressive elements.

1. Adhyāropa-Apavāda

   • Pedagogical method: Superimposition (adhyāropa) and negation (apavāda) of attributes on Brahman.

2. Dharma Framework

   • Fourfold Pursuits (Puruṣārtha):
     • Dharma (duty) → Artha (wealth) → Kāma (pleasure) → Mokṣa (liberation)
   • Varṇāśrama Integration:
     • Affirms caste duties while teaching ultimate non-duality.

1. Dashanami Sampradāya

   • Ten renunciate lineages:

     Order	Suffix	Symbolic Meaning
     Araṇya	-aranya	Forest-dweller
     Bhāratī	-bhāratī	Knowledge bearer
     Giri	-giri	Mountain ascetic
     Parvata	-parvata	Mountain peak
     Sāgara	-sāgara	Oceanic consciousness

2. Initiation (Sannyāsa Dīkṣā)

   • Yati (monk) vows: Non-violence, poverty, chastity, truthfulness.

1. Tamil Smārtism

   • Integration of Āḻvār hymns (e.g., selective adoption in Cidambaram).

2. Maharashtra Smārtism

   • Gaṇeśa focus (e.g., Aṣṭavināyaka pilgrimage).

3. Kerala Smārtism

   • Nambudiri Brahmin traditions; Śiva-Viṣṇu equivalence rituals.

1. Global Movements

   • Ramakrishna Mission: Vivekananda’s practical Vedānta.
   • Chinmaya Mission: Scriptural education for diaspora.

2. Contemporary Debates

   • Caste: Orthodoxy vs. reform (e.g., Sabarimala entry controversy).
   • Gender: Female monasticism (e.g., Pravrajika Gayatriprana).

Key Backlinks:

• Pañcāyatana Pūjā → Contrasts with sectarian mūrti worship
• Dashanami Sampradāya → Monastic networks preserving Advaita
• Māyā vs. Śakti: Smārta illusion-theory vs. Śākta power-theology
• Śṛṅgeri Maṭha → Hub of Smārta orthodoxy

1. Tīrthaṅkaras (Ford-Makers)

   • 24 Liberated Teachers; final two are historically attested:
     • Pārśvanātha (9th c. BCE): Taught Caujjāma (4 restraints)
     • Mahāvīra (599–527 BCE): Added 5th restraint; compiled teachings
   • Enlightenment Events:
     • Mahāvīra’s Kevala Jñāna under Sāla tree (age 42)
     • Final Nirvāṇa at Pāvāpur (age 72)

2. Schisms

   • Great Schism (c. 300 BCE):

     Branch	Key Difference	Geography
     Digambara	Monastic nudity (Sky-Clad); no female liberation	Karnataka, Maharashtra
     Śvetāmbara	White-robed monks; women can achieve liberation	Gujarat, Rajasthan

   • Subsects:
     • Digambara: Terāpanthī (reformist), Bīsapanthī (orthodox)
     • Śvetāmbara: Sthānakavāsī (no idols), Mūrtipūjaka (idol worship)

3. Imperial Patronage

   • Chandragupta Maurya: Became Digambara monk; migrated to Shravanabelagola
   • King Khāravela (1st c. BCE): Kalinga ruler; patronized Jain caves (Udayagiri)

1. Metaphysics

   • Anekāntavāda: Reality has infinite aspects (rejects dogmatism)
     • Syādvāda: “Maybe-logic” (saptabhaṅgī – sevenfold predication)
   • Dravya: 6 Eternal Substances:

     Substance	Attributes	Contrast with Hinduism
     Jīva	Consciousness; infinite souls	Plural vs. Hindu monistic Ātman
     Pudgala	Matter (atomic)	Physical karma vs. ethical karma
     Dharma	Medium of motion	Cosmic principle → physical law
     Adharma	Medium of rest
     Ākāśa	Space
     Kāla	Time

2. Ethics

   • Five Mahāvratas (Great Vows):
     1. Ahimsā (non-violence) – Most absolute in world religions
     2. Satya (truthfulness)
     3. Asteya (non-stealing)
     4. Brahmacharya (chastity)
     5. Aparigraha (non-possession)
   • Hierarchy of Life Forms:
     • Sensed Beings: 1–5 senses (plants: 1; humans/animals: 5)
     • Avoid harming higher-sensed beings strictly

3. Soteriology

   • Karma Mechanism:
     • Karma as sticky matter (Pudgala) binding soul → colors it (Leśyā)
     • 14 Guṇasthāna: Stages of soul purification
   • Liberation Path:
     • Three Jewels: Right Faith (Samyak Darśana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jñāna), Right Conduct (Samyak Chāritra)
     • Goal: Siddhaloka – realm of perfected souls (no body, pure consciousness)