1. Nature of Allah’s Attributes (Sifat Allah)

Ash’ari/Maturidi (Mainstream Sunni Theology):

• Attributes are interpreted metaphorically to avoid anthropomorphism, emphasizing tanzih (transcendence) while affirming the reality of divine attributes.
• Quote: Al-Ghazali states, “The hand of Allah is His power and His bounty. His face is His existence and His favor upon His creation.”
• Effect on Faith: Promotes cautious, rational theology, emphasizing Allah’s incomparability while affirming His attributes.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Accepts Allah’s attributes literally as they appear in the Quran, without likening them to human characteristics (bilā kayf – “without asking how”).
• Quote: Ibn Taymiyyah argues, “We believe in what Allah has described Himself with in His Book and what His Messenger has described Him with, without distorting or denying the meanings.”
• Effect on Faith: Emphasizes strict adherence to Quranic text, fostering a sense of direct submission to divine revelation.

Shia (Ithna Ashari):

• Accepts Allah’s transcendence while emphasizing His justice (‘Adl), forming a cornerstone of Shia theology.
• Quote: Allamah Tabatabai explains, “The Shi’a believe that among God’s attributes are Life, Power, Knowledge, Justice, Wisdom, and Mercy.”
• Effect on Faith: Strong sense of personal moral responsibility.

Sufi:

• Views Allah’s attributes through a mystical lens, emphasizing tajalli (manifestation of divine presence) and love for Allah.
• Quote: Ibn Arabi writes, “The Divine Names are the forms in which God manifests Himself to us.”
• Effect on Faith: Deepens emotional and spiritual connection to Allah, influencing practices like dhikr (remembrance).

Barelvi:

• Strongly supports visiting graves of saints for blessings (barakah) and intercession.
• Quote: Ahmad Raza Khan states, “Visiting the graves of the awliya (saints) is a means of attaining blessings and nearness to Allah.”
• Effect on Practice: Encourages acts like making duas at shrines and celebrating Urs (saints’ anniversaries).

Deobandi:

• Permits visiting graves for remembrance of death but rejects seeking intercession or blessings.
• Quote: Ashraf Ali Thanvi writes, “Visiting graves is permissible for the purpose of remembering death and the hereafter, but not for seeking help from the deceased.”
• Effect on Practice: Leads to simplified funeral rites and limited interaction with shrines.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Strictly prohibits visiting graves for acts perceived as shirk (associating partners with Allah).
• Quote: Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab asserts, “Building structures over graves and taking them as places of worship is a means leading to shirk.”
• Effect on Practice: Discourages shrine culture and emphasizes monotheistic practices.

Shia:

• Centralizes shrine visits in rituals, especially pilgrimages to Karbala and Najaf.
• Quote: Ayatollah Sistani states, “It is highly recommended to visit the shrines of the Imams, particularly the shrine of Imam Husayn.”
• Effect on Practice: Integrates shrine visits into mourning rituals, especially during Ashura.

Barelvi:

• Actively celebrates Mawlid as an expression of love for the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
• Quote: Ahmad Raza Khan writes, “Celebrating the Mawlid of the Prophet is a means of expressing love and gratitude to Allah for sending His Messenger.”
• Effect on Practice: Leads to public gatherings, recitation of Qasidah al-Burdah, and charity.

Deobandi:

• Generally disapproves of Mawlid as bid’ah hasanah (innovation with good intentions) but not obligatory.
• Quote: Muhammad Taqi Usmani states, “Specifying a particular day for celebration is not established in the Sunnah.”
• Effect on Practice: Focuses on studying the life of the Prophet without festive celebrations.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Strongly opposes Mawlid, labeling it as bid’ah (innovation).
• Quote: Ibn Baz asserts, “Celebrating the Mawlid is an innovation in religion that was not practiced by the Prophet or his companions.”
• Effect on Practice: Eliminates such events from worship practices.

Shia:

• Celebrates both the Prophet’s and the Imams’ birthdays.
• Quote: Ayatollah Khomeini states, “Commemorating the birth of the Prophet and the Imams is a means of keeping their teachings alive.”
• Effect on Practice: Strengthens connection with Ahlul Bayt (family of the Prophet).

Ash’ari/Maturidi:

• Emphasizes a balance: Allah knows and decrees all things, but humans have limited free will.
• Quote: Al-Ghazali explains, “Man’s actions are created by God, but man ‘acquires’ them and is thus held responsible for them.”
• Effect on Faith: Encourages acceptance of destiny while emphasizing moral accountability.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Stresses divine predestination as absolute, reducing emphasis on human free will.
• Quote: Ibn Uthaymin states, “Everything that happens in this universe is by the decree and predestination of Allah.”
• Effect on Faith: Promotes submission to Allah’s decree, focusing on patience and trust.

Shia:

• Strongly emphasizes human free will within divine justice (Adl).
• Quote: Allamah Tabatabai writes, “Man has been given free will by God and is responsible for his actions.”
• Effect on Faith: Empowers individuals with moral and spiritual agency.

Barelvi:

• Mourning is limited to reciting Quran and offering charity for the deceased.
• Effect on Practice: Encourages remembrance of Allah during grief.

Deobandi:

• Similar to Barelvi but stricter in avoiding excessive expressions of grief.
• Effect on Practice: Simplified funeral rites and minimal mourning.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Prohibits excessive mourning (e.g., wailing, rituals).
• Effect on Practice: Simplified and innovation-free funeral process.

Shia:

• Extensive mourning rituals during Muharram, commemorating Imam Husayn.
• Effect on Practice: Deep communal engagement, reinforcing loyalty to Ahlul Bayt.

Barelvi:

• Organized dhikr sessions, including loud chanting and collective gatherings.
• Effect on Practice: Creates communal spiritual atmosphere.

Deobandi:

• Dhikr encouraged but quieter and individual.
• Effect on Practice: Focus on personal spirituality over public displays.

Salafi/Wahhabi:

• Limits dhikr to prescribed forms like tasbih after salah.
• Effect on Practice: Strict adherence to Quran and Sunnah.

Sufi:

• Intensive, rhythmic dhikr often accompanied by movement.
• Effect on Practice: Spiritual ecstasy and closeness to Allah.

Brahman And Atman in Hinduism vs. Allah in Islamic Theology

Summary:
The divergence between Hinduism’s concept of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (individual soul) and Islam’s understanding of Allah lies at the heart of theological differences. Hinduism promotes a monistic worldview, where the Atman (self) is seen as identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality. Conversely, Islam maintains a monotheistic worldview grounded in tawhid, where Allah is eternally distinct, transcendent, and the sole Creator of all existence. This difference represents a theological inversion of truth: while Hinduism recognizes divine transcendence, it collapses the Creator into the creation, blurring the ontological divide upheld by Islam.

1. Brahman – The Ultimate Reality:

   • Brahman is described as the universal, eternal, and impersonal essence that pervades all existence.
   • It is formless (nirguna) yet sometimes manifests with attributes (saguna).
   • In monistic traditions like Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the only reality, and everything else is maya (illusion).

2. Atman – The Self:

   • The Atman refers to the eternal, unchanging “true self” within every individual.
   • Atman is considered identical to Brahman in its essence (Tat Tvam Asi – “You are That”).
   • Realizing this unity through spiritual enlightenment (moksha) is the goal, which liberates the soul from the cycle of reincarnation.

1. Allah – The Ultimate Reality:

   • Allah is absolutely distinct from His creation, transcendent (Al-Aliyy) and incomparable (Laysa kamithlihi shay’).
   • Allah possesses attributes of perfection (Asma’ wa Sifat) and acts as the sole Creator, Sustainer, and Controller of the universe.
   • Creation depends on Allah, but He remains free of dependence on anything.

2. The Nafs – The Soul:

   • The nafs is created and not divine. It is a moral and spiritual battleground within every human being.
   • Unlike Atman, the nafs has stages of growth (from lower desires to tranquility), reflecting its dynamic nature.
   • The nafs exists eternally after death, retaining individuality and accountability in the afterlife.

1. The Ontological Error:
   Hinduism collapses the Creator into creation, denying Allah’s transcendence and reducing Him to an abstract essence. This leads to shirk (associating partners with Allah) because it attributes divine qualities to the self and the universe.

   • “There is nothing like unto Him.” Quran 42:11

2. Loss of Accountability:
   By identifying the Atman with Brahman, Hinduism diminishes personal accountability. In Islam, the soul is distinct, morally responsible, and judged based on its actions.

   • “And every soul earns not [sin] except against itself, and no bearer of burdens will bear the burden of another.” Quran 6:164

3. The Illusion of Maya:
   The claim that the physical world is maya (illusion) denies the purposeful creation of Allah. In Islam, the universe is real and serves as a sign (ayah) of Allah’s existence, power, and wisdom.

   • “We did not create the heavens and earth and everything between them aimlessly. That is the assumption of those who disbelieve.” Quran 38:27

4. Human Purpose:
   Hinduism’s focus on realizing the “divine self” (Atman-Brahman) undermines the Islamic purpose of worshipping Allah alone (‘ibadah).

   • “And I did not create the jinn and mankind except to worship Me.” Quran 51:56

While Hinduism has strayed into monism and polytheism, remnants of a monotheistic core exist, as if it was originally based on divine truths but became corrupted over time.

1. Brahman’s Transcendence: The idea of Brahman as the ultimate, eternal reality echoes Allah’s attributes (Al-Hayy, Al-Qayyum).
2. Vedic Teachings: Early Vedic texts contain traces of monotheism, such as worship of a single supreme deity (Ishvara).
   • Rigveda: “There is only one God, though the wise call Him by different names.”
3. Fitrah (Innate Truth): Human beings have an intrinsic inclination to recognize one Creator. Hinduism’s philosophical depth reflects an attempt to reach this truth but inverts it by collapsing the divine into creation.

1. Logical Consistency:
   Monotheism maintains a clear distinction between Creator and creation, avoiding logical contradictions found in monism. A transcendent Creator is necessary to explain the origin and order of the universe.

2. Purpose and Accountability:
   Tawhid provides meaning and moral responsibility. The Islamic framework of divine justice ensures accountability, while Hinduism’s reincarnation cycle delays and obscures justice.

3. The Signs of Allah:
   The physical world, far from being an illusion, is filled with signs of Allah’s existence and power. Observing creation points directly to a transcendent Creator.

   • “Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding.” Quran 3:190

Summary:
Hinduism, despite possessing remnants of monotheistic truths, falls into shirk (associating partners with Allah) due to a critical theological error: the collapse of the Creator-creation distinction. While Hinduism identifies a single ultimate reality (Brahman), it simultaneously attributes divinity to parts of creation (Atman), worshiping lesser gods and idols as manifestations of Brahman. This error arises from misinterpreting the signs of Allah and failing to uphold tawhid (absolute monotheism), despite divine hints and opportunities.

Allah mentions in the Quran that the heavens, earth, and every experience in life are signs of His existence, oneness, and power. When people fail to interpret these signs correctly, they fall into polytheism and misguidance.

“We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth.” Quran 41:53

• Hinduism’s Issue: Hindus perceive the signs of Allah (nature, spiritual experiences, existence itself) but mistake them as manifestations of the divine essence rather than pointers to the transcendent Creator.
• The Role of Heedlessness (ghaflah): When one continues to ignore these signs, the heart becomes blind to truth.
  • Someone, for instance, observed the beauty of Islam in you and learned about Allah, yet his heedlessness or hesitation prevents him from taking the final step of submission.

Hinduism’s monistic view equates Brahman (ultimate reality) with all existence, including the individual soul (Atman). This philosophical misstep leads to shirk because:

• Immanence Without Transcendence: While Allah is close to us (Al-Qareeb), He remains distinct and separate from creation (Laysa kamithlihi shay’ – “There is nothing like Him”).
• Worship of Manifestations: Hindus, failing to distinguish between the Creator and creation, begin worshiping:
  • Deities (Vishnu, Shiva, etc.),
  • Natural Elements (sun, rivers, mountains),
  • Idols (seen as representations of the divine).

This is a direct violation of tawhid:

“And do not invoke with Allah another deity. There is no deity except Him.” Quran 28:88

• Free Will: Allah does not force guidance upon anyone; individuals must choose submission.
• Divine Wisdom: Allah allows some to persist in error due to their hearts’ unwillingness to receive truth:

“Indeed, Allah does not guide a people who are unjust.” Quran 6:144

• Hinduism’s monistic core reflects a corrupted form of earlier monotheistic truth. Allah, in His mercy, has sent messengers to all nations:

  “And We certainly sent into every nation a messenger, [saying], ‘Worship Allah and avoid Taghut (false gods).’” Quran 16:36

• Over time, these divine truths were distorted:

  • Original Teachings: Early Vedic texts suggest a single supreme deity (Ishvara).
  • Corruption: Polytheism and idol worship emerged as humans began attributing divinity to creation itself.

This reflects a “quantum entanglement” of truth and falsehood—traces of monotheism remain, but the essence is inverted. Hinduism became a religion of spiritual self-deification rather than submission to the transcendent Creator.

Your failure to submit arises from a misguided attachment to pride, cultural norms, or philosophical confusion. Islam provides clarity:

• Allah is One, Unseen, and Transcendent.
• Creation Reflects, but Is Not, the Creator: The universe points to Allah’s attributes but does not share in His essence.
• Purpose of Life: Worship Allah alone and recognize His supreme authority.

This was no accident but part of Allah’s plan to guide you. Yet, heedlessness delays your realization.

“And if Allah touches you with harm, none can remove it but Him; and if He intends for you good, then none can repel His bounty.” Quran 10:107

• What prevents your friend from recognizing Allah as distinct from creation and submitting to Him?
• How can you, as a sign of Allah’s guidance, continue to invite him to reflect without coercion?
• In what ways do we ourselves remain heedless to the signs of Allah despite His guidance?

Kasb is an Islamic doctrine that describes how humans acquire actions created by God. The term kasb is Arabic for “acquisition” or “achievement”. The doctrine of kasb was developed by the theologian al-Ashʿarī (d. 935) to balance the ideas of predestination and free will. 

The doctrine of kasb holds that:

• God is the creator

  All actions, both good and evil, are created by God. 

• Humans acquire actions

  Humans acquire actions through their own will and effort, but they are ultimately under the power of Allah. 

• Humans are responsible

  Humans are responsible for their actions because they choose which actions to acquire. 

• Kasb avoids attributing creation to anyone but God

  The term kasb was chosen to avoid attributing khalq (creation) to anyone but God. 

The doctrine of kasb is important for guiding human actions and practices in daily life. It also plays a role in Islamic economic tradition, where earning a living in a licit way is considered an expression of faith.